Among them is 52-year-old Iniebong James, who arrived in Lagos earlier this month on a government-organized repatriation flight after spending a decade in South Africa. While relieved to have escaped an increasingly hostile environment, he now faces many of the same economic pressures that originally drove him to leave Nigeria.

James moved to South Africa in 2016 after losing his job as a truck driver during Nigeria’s first recession in more than two decades. Settling in Eastern Cape Province, he worked as a car mechanic despite overstaying a six-month visitor visa.

His return followed an attack by anti-immigrant protesters in May that left him with a head injury. The incident occurred amid rising anti-foreigner sentiment in South Africa, where demonstrations demanding the removal of undocumented migrants have intensified in recent months.

South Africa has long attracted migrants from across the African continent due to its comparatively developed economy and broader employment opportunities. However, periodic outbreaks of xenophobic violence have repeatedly exposed tensions over unemployment, poverty, public services and crime.

Back in Nigeria, James says he faces a more difficult economic landscape than the one he left behind. Inflation has surged following sweeping economic reforms introduced by President Bola Tinubu in 2023, including the removal of fuel subsidies and the liberalization of the national currency.

The resulting increase in living costs has been compounded by global energy market disruptions linked to the recent US-Iran conflict. According to James, fuel prices that stood at about 85 naira per liter when he departed Nigeria have climbed to approximately 1,400 naira per liter upon his return.

Seeking employment, he says he hopes government assistance programs promised for returning citizens will help him rebuild his life.

Nigeria’s government has stated that repatriated nationals will receive support before reuniting with their families, though officials have not publicly outlined long-term reintegration measures.

Migration experts say returning home after years abroad often presents challenges that extend beyond transportation and immediate assistance.

“Repatriation is not transformation,” said Margaret Monyani, founder of the Johannesburg-based OLAM Africa Research Institute. She noted that migrants who have spent years building lives elsewhere frequently struggle to reconnect economically and socially upon their return.

For younger returnees, the adjustment can be equally difficult.

Omotola Adeniyi returned to Nigeria after spending 11 years in South Africa, where she moved as a child with her mother. Although she completed secondary education there, she said finding employment proved difficult as a foreign national.

Unable to secure stable work and lacking the resources to finance her own return journey, she accepted Nigeria’s offer of repatriation. Now back in Lagos, she says the country feels unfamiliar after more than a decade abroad.

The wave of anti-migrant protests in South Africa has prompted diplomatic responses from several African governments, including Nigeria, Ghana and Malawi, which have repatriated hundreds of their citizens in recent weeks.

Nigeria’s Foreign Minister, Bianca Odumegwu-Ojukwu, defended the government’s repatriation efforts, describing the safety of citizens as the primary concern amid rising tensions.

Analysts note that despite recurring xenophobic incidents, South Africa remains a major destination for African migrants because of its relatively advanced infrastructure, stronger institutions and broader economic opportunities compared with many neighboring countries.

The experience of returnees such as James underscores a broader dilemma facing many African migrants: balancing security concerns abroad against economic hardship at home, with neither option offering an easy path to stability.

Phenyo Tanka’s experience in the labour market highlights a broader challenge facing Botswana as policymakers seek to reduce the country’s long-standing dependence on the diamond sector and create employment opportunities across a more diversified economy.

Tanka, 39, graduated with a degree in agriculture in 2011, entering the workforce with qualifications in a field widely viewed as important to economic diversification efforts. More than a decade later, she says she has been unable to secure employment in the sector despite submitting numerous applications for positions related to her studies.

Her situation illustrates the difficulties faced by some graduates attempting to translate academic qualifications into formal employment opportunities in sectors that have yet to generate sufficient jobs to absorb skilled workers.

Botswana is internationally recognised for the role diamonds have played in transforming its economy since independence. Revenue generated by the mining industry has supported infrastructure development, public services and economic growth over several decades.

At the same time, policymakers have repeatedly identified economic diversification as a national priority aimed at reducing vulnerability to fluctuations in commodity markets and creating broader employment opportunities.Against that backdrop, agriculture has frequently been cited as one of the sectors with potential to contribute to economic expansion beyond mining.

However, Tanka’s experience reflects the challenges that can emerge when employment creation does not keep pace with educational attainment and workforce participation.After graduating in agriculture in 2011, Tanka sought employment in the field she had studied. According to her account, repeated applications failed to result in a job offer, leaving her outside the sector despite her qualifications.

The prolonged search for work eventually led her to pursue self-employment opportunities rather than continue relying exclusively on formal recruitment processes. While she has not secured a position in agriculture, she has continued to explore ways to generate income independently.

Today, Tanka operates a small business producing and selling homemade cakes. The venture represents an entrepreneurial response to limited employment opportunities and reflects a broader trend in which individuals seek alternative income sources through small-scale enterprise when formal jobs are difficult to obtain.

Her ambitions extend beyond her current business activities. Tanka said she hopes to establish a toilet paper manufacturing operation, signalling an interest in expanding into light industrial production and building a larger commercial enterprise.The transition from university graduate to entrepreneur was not part of her original career plan.

However, after years of unsuccessful job searches, self-employment has become her primary economic activity.Tanka said her entrepreneurial goals are also shaped by personal considerations, particularly her desire to provide an example for her children.“I have two girls and I want them to know that they can also be independent, as ladies,” she said.

Her comments reflect a focus on economic self-sufficiency and the role entrepreneurship can play in creating opportunities when conventional employment pathways prove difficult to access.The experience of graduates such as Tanka continues to draw attention to the relationship between education, labour market demand and economic diversification.

While higher education provides skills and qualifications, employment outcomes ultimately depend on the capacity of industries and businesses to create positions that match those skills.In economies seeking to broaden their productive base, the challenge often extends beyond training workers.

It also involves fostering investment, supporting business development and creating conditions in which new sectors can generate sustainable employment opportunities.For Botswana, efforts to diversify economic activity beyond diamonds have been a recurring policy objective.

The country’s development strategy has frequently emphasised expanding activity in sectors capable of contributing to growth, employment and economic resilience.Tanka’s experience provides a personal perspective on that broader economic challenge.

Despite obtaining a university degree in a sector considered important to diversification efforts, she has remained unable to secure employment in her field since graduating in 2011.Yet her response has not been to withdraw from economic activity.

Instead, she has pursued entrepreneurship through her cake business while planning future ventures that could potentially create additional income streams.More than a decade after completing her studies, she continues to seek opportunities to build a sustainable livelihood. Her efforts underscore the realities faced by some graduates navigating labour markets where the availability of skilled employment remains limited relative to demand.

As Botswana continues to pursue economic diversification, experiences such as Tanka’s highlight the importance of translating policy objectives into employment opportunities capable of absorbing qualified workers and supporting broader economic participation.

For Tanka, that process remains personal as well as economic. While her search for employment in agriculture has yet to yield results, she continues to pursue business opportunities and invest in plans she hopes will provide both financial independence and an example for the next generation.

“I have two girls and I want them to know that they can also be independent, as ladies,” she said.