For centuries, artistic representations of power, status and beauty often featured individuals whose physical characteristics would today be associated with higher body mass indexes, according to physician and researcher Dr. Hutan Yafi.

The observation reflects a broader debate among scholars and medical experts over how changing perceptions of health and attractiveness have influenced the interpretation of historical artworks.Yafi argues that throughout much of recorded history, larger body size frequently functioned as a visual indicator of wealth, authority and social standing.

In artistic depictions, rulers, religious figures, members of royal households and other influential individuals were commonly portrayed with fuller physiques. Similar characteristics were often associated with idealized representations of women, particularly in portraiture and other forms of figurative art.

According to Yafi, these portrayals reflected prevailing social and economic realities. In many societies, access to abundant food and resources was unevenly distributed, making larger body size a visible marker of prosperity and privilege.

As a result, artistic representations frequently reinforced social hierarchies by associating physical abundance with power, influence and desirability.“Strong men, leaders, royal families, religious people, high people in the society were portrayed with high BMI,” Yafi said. “Beautiful women and models were also portrayed with high BMI.”

The relationship between body size and cultural ideals remained relatively stable for long periods, Yafi said, before undergoing significant changes during the 20th century. He linked that shift to developments in medical research, particularly growing scientific understanding of nutrition and cardiovascular health.

According to Yafi, perceptions began to evolve during the second half of the 20th century as researchers increasingly examined the role of saturated fats and trans fats in metabolic disorders and cardiovascular disease. Public health discussions around diet and weight gained prominence, influencing both medical guidance and broader social attitudes.

As scientific research expanded, body image standards in popular culture and visual media also changed, Yafi said. He argued that thinner body types increasingly became associated with attractiveness and health, while obesity became more likely to be viewed negatively.

“This led to images of thin, often unrealistically thin, men and women being glorified and obesity being stigmatised,” Yafi said. “Suddenly, thin people became beautiful and the women who inspired artists for centuries were no longer considered attractive.”The evolution of beauty standards has attracted attention from researchers examining the intersection of medicine, culture and visual representation.

Some have sought to analyze historical artworks through a modern medical lens, looking for physical features that may suggest underlying health conditions. Such efforts remain controversial because they rely on interpretations of artistic representations rather than direct clinical evidence.

One of the most frequently discussed examples involves the Mona Lisa, the iconic portrait painted by Leonardo da Vinci during the Renaissance. The painting has long been the subject of academic inquiry across disciplines ranging from art history and conservation science to medicine and psychology.

Yafi noted that some scientists have proposed retrospective medical interpretations of the portrait’s subject. Among the hypotheses advanced in academic discussions are suggestions that features visible in the painting could indicate elevated cholesterol levels, issues related to body mass or endocrine disorders such as hypothyroidism.

“Some scientists believe Leonardo da Vinci’s Mona Lisa was very unhealthy and that she had a problem with her BMI, cholesterol and severe hypothyroidism,” Yafi said.At the same time, Yafi acknowledged the limitations inherent in such analyses. Because the subject lived centuries ago and no direct medical examination is possible, any conclusions remain speculative and dependent on visual interpretation.

“We don’t know because we cannot go back and make a diagnosis, we are just analysing her features,” Yafi added.The debate highlights a broader challenge faced by researchers attempting to apply modern medical frameworks to historical figures.

While advances in medical science provide new tools for interpreting visual evidence, artworks were not created as clinical records. Portraits often incorporate symbolism, stylistic conventions and artistic choices that can complicate efforts to draw conclusions about physical health.Art historian Bendor Grosvenor has cautioned against treating artistic depictions as reliable diagnostic evidence.

He argues that portraiture operates within artistic and cultural contexts that extend beyond physical resemblance.“Poor Mona Lisa, she’s always being diagnosed with something she almost certainly never had,” Grosvenor said.His comments reflect concerns shared by many art historians who view retrospective medical diagnoses as inherently uncertain.

According to Grosvenor, visual characteristics in a painting cannot be separated from the artistic intentions of the painter or the conventions of the period in which the work was produced.“If a doctor today diagnosed someone only on the basis of how their face looked, we wouldn’t take them seriously,” he said.Grosvenor emphasized that portraiture often serves purposes beyond recording physical appearance.

Artists may alter proportions, emphasize particular features or incorporate symbolic elements intended to communicate status, personality or cultural values rather than provide an exact representation of the subject.“Art is art, and a portrait – even one by Leonardo – is usually about so much more than likeness, let alone health,” Grosvenor said.

His remarks underscore a longstanding tension between medical interpretation and art historical analysis. While physicians may view visual details as potential indicators of health conditions, historians generally stress the importance of understanding artworks within their original social, cultural and artistic contexts.

The discussion surrounding the Mona Lisa also reflects broader questions about how contemporary societies interpret historical images. Standards of beauty, health and physical appearance have shifted significantly across different eras, often influenced by changing economic conditions, scientific knowledge and cultural values. As a result, characteristics that were once celebrated or considered desirable may later be viewed differently.

Yafi’s observations suggest that modern assumptions about body size and attractiveness cannot always be applied to earlier periods without considering historical context. Artistic depictions of rulers, aristocrats and celebrated women often reflected the ideals of their time rather than contemporary expectations.

Grosvenor, meanwhile, argues that efforts to diagnose historical figures based on portraits risk oversimplifying works of art whose significance extends beyond physical appearance. For historians, paintings remain cultural artifacts shaped by creative decisions, social conventions and symbolic meanings that cannot be reduced to questions of medical status alone.

“This is as likely for the art of the future as the art of the past,” Grosvenor said. “Art is art, and a portrait is usually about much more than health.”

German billionaire investor Christian Angermayer is staking his latest business venture on a proposition that has alarmed much of the sporting establishment: that the future of elite competition lies in the open use of performance-enhancing drugs under medical supervision.

Angermayer, whose investments have spanned biotechnology, cryptocurrencies and psychedelic medicine, is a leading supporter of the Enhanced Games, a controversial sporting event that permits athletes to use substances prohibited under conventional anti-doping rules.

Critics have labeled the project the “Steroid Olympics,” while its organizers argue it represents a new model for sport, health and human performance.The inaugural competition is scheduled to feature sprinting, swimming and weightlifting events.

Organizers say participating athletes will compete under a framework that allows the use of performance-enhancing substances, provided they are medically monitored.

According to data cited by Enhanced Games organizers, 36 of the 42 athletes entered in the event participated in a study examining drug use. Of those athletes, all but two reportedly used substances banned by traditional anti-doping authorities.

Organizers said 91% used testosterone, 79% human growth hormone, 41% erythropoietin (EPO) and 29% anabolic steroids.The figures underscore why the initiative has generated strong opposition from many sporting bodies, anti-doping officials and health experts, who have long warned about the risks associated with performance-enhancing drugs.

The Enhanced Games, however, argues that existing anti-doping systems have failed to eliminate drug use and that regulated enhancement offers a more transparent alternative.For Angermayer, the venture extends beyond sport.

He views the competition as a platform for broader acceptance of medical interventions aimed at improving performance, appearance and quality of life.Speaking about the concept, Angermayer questioned why medical treatments should be confined to addressing illness.

He argued that medically approved therapies supervised by physicians could be used proactively to help individuals achieve personal goals, whether related to athletic performance, aging or general well-being.The Enhanced Games business model reflects that philosophy.

Organizers hope public exposure to athletes openly using enhancement therapies could increase consumer interest in products marketed for performance, recovery and longevity. Among the products promoted through the broader ecosystem are testosterone-based treatments and peptide therapies associated with skin health and physical performance.

Supporters of the project argue that advances in biotechnology are already transforming medicine and that sport should adapt accordingly. Critics counter that normalizing performance-enhancing drugs risks encouraging unsafe use among amateur athletes and the broader public, particularly younger people who may seek competitive advantages without adequate medical oversight.

Angermayer remains convinced that public opinion will shift. He predicts the event will attract a large and politically diverse audience, introducing new consumers to enhancement therapies and challenging long-standing assumptions about anti-doping policies.

The billionaire’s confidence is consistent with his reputation for pursuing unconventional investments. Beyond biotechnology and financial markets, Angermayer is known for collecting rare fossils and dinosaur remains.

During a discussion of his collection, he described owning what he said is the largest triceratops skull ever discovered and also possessing a Tyrannosaurus rex skeleton that he may sell for approximately $40 million.He said the triceratops skull is being installed in his London apartment, a process complicated by insurance requirements and the logistical challenge of moving such a large specimen into a residential property.

Yet even by Angermayer’s standards, the Enhanced Games may be his most ambitious undertaking. The initiative seeks to challenge decades of anti-doping norms that have shaped modern international sport, including policies enforced by organizations such as World Anti-Doping Agency and numerous international federations.

Supporters argue that technological and medical advances make traditional distinctions between natural and enhanced performance increasingly difficult to maintain. Opponents respond that the widespread acceptance of enhancement drugs would fundamentally alter the nature of athletic competition and increase pressure on athletes to use substances simply to remain competitive.

Angermayer believes the concept can eventually expand beyond current participants. He has suggested future editions could include well-known former athletes in their 40s and 50s attempting to approach performances from their competitive prime with the assistance of enhancement therapies.

Such proposals remain highly controversial and are likely to face continued scrutiny from sports governing bodies and medical experts. Questions surrounding athlete safety, informed consent, competitive fairness and the commercial promotion of enhancement drugs remain central to the debate.Despite those concerns, Angermayer appears undeterred.

He argues that enhancement technologies represent an inevitable part of the future and sees the Enhanced Games as an early step toward broader public acceptance of performance-focused medicine.Whether that vision gains mainstream support remains uncertain.

The project’s long-term viability will likely depend on audience interest, athlete participation, regulatory responses and the public’s willingness to embrace a model of sport built around openly enhanced performance.For now, Angermayer is placing a high-stakes wager that the concept will endure.

While skeptics question whether the Enhanced Games can survive beyond its initial years, the entrepreneur insists the movement is only beginning.